Python Data Types and Operators ### Data Types Python has several built-in data types, categorized as follows: 1. **Numeric Types** - `int`: Integer (e.g., `5`, `-3`, `0`) - `float`: Floating-point number (e.g., `3.14`, `-0.001`, `2.0`) - `complex`: Complex number (e.g., `1 + 2j`, `3 - 4j`) 2. **Sequence Types** - `str`: String (e.g., `"hello"`, `'Python'`) - `list`: Mutable sequence (e.g., `[1, 2, 3]`, `['a', 'b', 'c']`) - `tuple`: Immutable sequence (e.g., `(1, 2, 3)`, `('x', 'y', 'z')`) 3. **Mapping Type** - `dict`: Key-value pairs (e.g., `{'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}`) 4. **Set Types** - `set`: Unordered, unique elements (e.g., `{1, 2, 3}`) - `frozenset`: Immutable set (e.g., `frozenset({1, 2, 3})`) 5. **Boolean Type** - `bool`: Logical values (`True` or `False`) 6. **Binary Types** - `bytes`: Immutable byte sequence (e.g., `b'hello'`) - `bytearray`: Mutable byte sequence - `memoryview`: Memory view of objects ### Operators Python supports various operators for performing operations on data: 1. **Arithmetic Operators** - `+` (Addition) - `-` (Subtraction) - `*` (Multiplication) - `/` (Division) - `%` (Modulus) - `**` (Exponentiation) - `//` (Floor Division) 2. **Comparison Operators** - `==` (Equal) - `!=` (Not Equal) - `>` (Greater Than) - `<` (Less Than) - `>=` (Greater Than or Equal) - `<=` (Less Than or Equal) 3. **Logical Operators** - `and` (Logical AND) - `or` (Logical OR) - `not` (Logical NOT) 4. **Assignment Operators** - `=` (Assignment) - `+=`, `-=`, `*=`, `/=`, etc. (Compound Assignment) 5. **Bitwise Operators** - `&` (AND) - `|` (OR) - `^` (XOR) - `~` (NOT) - `<<` (Left Shift) - `>>` (Right Shift) 6. **Membership Operators** - `in` (Checks if a value exists in a sequence) - `not in` (Checks if a value does not exist in a sequence) 7. **Identity Operators** - `is` (Checks if two variables refer to the same object) - `is not` (Checks if two variables refer to different objects) ### Example Code ```python # Numeric operations a = 10 b = 3 print(a + b) # Output: 13 print(a // b) # Output: 3 # String operations name = "Python" print(name * 2) # Output: "PythonPython" # List operations numbers = [1, 2, 3] numbers.append(4) print(numbers) # Output: [1, 2, 3, 4] # Dictionary operations person = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25} print(person['name']) # Output: "Alice" ``` This covers the fundamental data types and operators in Python. Let me know if you need further clarification!

WARNING

Constants and Variables

• Variables do not require type declaration
• Python uses = for variable assignment and == to compare two values, returning True if equal and False otherwise.
• Variables must be assigned before use (unlike C). A variable is created only after assignment.
  • Undefined variable exception:

>>> age  
Traceback (most recent call last):  
    File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>  
NameError: name 'age' is not defined  

Constants — Immutable Variables
Python has no mechanism to ensure variables won’t change objects. No error is raised if altered, unlike C’s const. Extreme caution is advised.

Assignment Methods

The assignment operator = is right-associative.

• Single assignment:
  • age = 18
• Batch assignment:
  • a = b = c = 1
    • Unthinkable in C/C++ :(
• Compute then assign:
  • age = 17 + 1
• Separate assignment:
  • a, b, c = 1, 2, 3
    • a == 1, b == 2, c == 3

When we write a = "Jack", the Python interpreter does two things:

1. Creates a string object 'Jack' in memory (constant).
2. Creates a variable a in memory and points it to 'Jack'.

When you assign variable a to another variable b, this operation points b to the data a points to, as shown below:

>>> a = "Jack"  
>>> a  
'Jack'  
>>> b = a  
>>> b  
'Jack'  
>>> id(a)  
4332916664  
>>> id(b)  
4332916664  

The id() function checks a variable’s memory address.
[[Basic Functions#id()]]

• If another value is assigned to a, id(a) changes while id(b) remains the same:

>>> a = "Ross"  
>>> a  
'Ross'  
>>> id(a)  
Another number (different from 4332916664)  

Variables and Objects

In Python, everything is an object: numbers, lists, functions—everything. Variables are references (or labels/names) to objects, and all operations on objects are performed through these references.

For example:

>>> a = 1  

• Here, the number 1 is the object, and a is the variable (name).
• The assignment = binds a name to an object (labels the object 1 with a).
• An object can have multiple labels (variables), but a variable can only bind to one object.
• Variables themselves have no type; the type is stored in the object and determined by the object’s type.
  • Thus, Python doesn’t require variable type declarations upfront, as it automatically infers the object’s data type—a major difference from C/C++.

Strings

1. Python does not distinguish between single characters and strings.
2. Strings can be created with single '' or double "" quotes (but not mixed!).
3. Triple single or double quotes create multi-line strings:

>>> name_1 = 'Jack'  
>>> name_2 = "Rose"  
>>> sentence_1 = '''Rose,  
Jack,  
You jump,  
I jump!'''  
>>> sentence_2 = """Life is short,  
you need Python."""  
# Works perfectly!  

• To include quotes, use the escape character \.
  [[Basic Functions#String Functions]]

String Formatting

% Method

print('My wife is %c, she is %d.' % (name, age))

• % is followed by a tuple or dict to pass formatted values.
• Placeholder types:
  ![[Pasted image 20230628233506.png]]

>>> name = 'Bronya'  
>>> age = 18  
>>> print('My wife`s name is %s, she is %d years old.' % (name, age))  # % corresponds to the order in %()  
My wife`s name is Bronya, she is 18 years old.  

• Advanced
  • %[data name][alignment flag][width].[precision][type]
  • Data name is used for dict assignment; omit for arrays.
  • Alignment flags:
    • +: Show sign.
    • -: Left-align.
    • space: Add a space before positive numbers to align with negatives.
    • 0: Add a zero before positive numbers to align with negatives.
  • Width: Total length of the formatted string, padded with 0 or space if shorter.
  • Precision: Decimal places.
  • Type: Placeholder type.

format

• Use {} as placeholders in the string, then append .format() with the variables to fill.

>>> name = 'Kiana'  
>>> age = 18  
>>> print('My wife is {}, she is {}.'.format(name, age))  # Fill in order  
>>> print('My wife is {1}, she is {0}.'.format(age, name))  
'''  
Indices can be used inside {}.  
Numbers inside {} correspond to .format() tuple/dict indices.  
'''  
>>> print('My wife is {name}, she is {age}.'.format(name=name, age=age))  # Or use variable names (mapped by object attributes)  
>>> print('My wife is {name}, she is {age}.'.format(name='Kiana', age=18))  # Keyword mapping  

>>> list1 = ['Kiana', 18]  
>>> print("My wife is {0[0]}, she is {0[1]}.".format(list1))  # Dict index mapping  

• Advanced
  • {:[fill char][alignment][sign flag][#][width][,][.precision][type]}
  • Fill char: Defaults to space if omitted.
  • Alignment:
    • ^: Center.
    • <: Left-align.
    • >: Right-align.
  • Sign flags:
    • +: Show sign.
    • space: Add a space before positive numbers to align with negatives.
  • #: Show 0b, 0o, or 0x prefixes for binary, octal, or hexadecimal.
  • Width: Total string width.
  • ,: Enable thousand separators.
  • Precision: Decimal places.
  • Type: Placeholder type.

f-string

Formatted String Literals (f-strings), supported only in Python 3.6+.
Prefix the string with f to enable f-strings, allowing direct variable use inside {}.

>>> print(f'My wife is {name}, she is {age}.')  

• f-strings also support format control parameters:
  {variable:[fill char][alignment][sign flag][#][width][,][.precision][type]}

⭐ Slicing

• Sliceable objects: strings, tuples, lists.
  name[a:b:c]

1. The interval is [a, b), including a but excluding b. Omitting a starts from 0; omitting b goes to the end.
2. c is the step size (defaults to 1 if omitted).
   ==When c is negative, slicing goes backward.==

>>> name = "polaris"  
>>> print(name[1:3])  
'ol'  
>>> print(name[::-3])  
'sap'  
'''  
'ris' takes 's', 'ola' takes 'a', 'p' takes 'p'  
'''  
>>> print(name[::-1])  
'siralop'  
# String reversal  

3. Slicing doesn’t modify the original object. Use slicing to create copies:

>>> x = [2, 3, 6, 2, 5]  
>>> y = x[:]  
>>> y.sort()  
>>> print(x)  
[2, 3, 6, 2, 5]  
>>> print(y)  
[2, 2, 3, 5, 6]  

Integers, Floats, Complex Numbers

1. Integers (Int)

   1. 0x for hexadecimal.
   2. 0o for octal.

2. Floats (Float)

   1. Decimal form.
   2. Scientific notation, where 10 is replaced by e.
      • e.g., 1.23e-6.

3. Complex Numbers (Complex)

   1. Real part + imaginary part: a + bj.
   2. complex(a, b).
   3. Both a and b are floats.

4. [[Basic Functions#type()]]

5. Floor Division (integer part of division):
   a // b

6. Modulo:
   a % b

7. Absolute value:

>>> a = 10  
>>> b = 3  
>>> a // b  
3  
>>> a % b  
1  

Boolean Values and None

• True: Truthy (non-zero values, defaults to 1).
• False: Falsy (= 0, defaults to 0).
• None: Null value, not 0 (integer), and not a Boolean type but NoneType.

1. Notes:
   • Capitalize the first letter.
   • Any computation or expression returning True or False is a Boolean operation, e.g., comparison.
2. The following evaluate to False:
   • 0, 0.0, -0.0
   • None
   • Empty strings, lists, tuples, dictionaries.
3. The following evaluate to True:
   • -1, 1, or any non-zero value.
   • All non-empty strings, including "False".
   • All non-empty dictionaries, lists, sets, tuples.
4. Boolean values can be used in arithmetic: True == 1, False == 0.

Boolean Operations

1. AND (and):
   • Only returns True if all operands are True.
2. OR (or):
   • Returns True if at least one operand is True.
3. NOT (not):
   • Unary operator: Converts True to False and vice versa.
   • ==Right-associative==.

>>> True and True  
True  
>>> True and False  
False  
>>> False and True  
False  
>>> True and 0 + 3  
3  

>>> True or False  
True  
>>> 0 or True  
True  
>>> 0 or 0  
0  
>>> False or 31  
31  

>>> not 3  
False  

Operators

Python supports the following operators:

• Arithmetic
• Comparison (Relational)
• Assignment
• Logical
• Bitwise
• Membership
• Identity
• Operator Precedence

Arithmetic Operators

• **: Exponentiation, x ** y returns x raised to y.
  ==Right-associative==.

>>> 2 ** 2 ** 3  
256  
>>> (2 ** 2) ** 3  
64  
>>> 2 ** (2 ** 3)  
256  

• //: Floor division (returns the integer part of the quotient).
• When mixing integers and floats, integers are converted to floats.

Comparison Operators

• ==: Checks if two objects are equal.
  ==Python allows chaining comparison operators.==
  a > b == c is equivalent to a > b and b == c.

Assignment Operators

• **=: Exponentiation assignment, c **= a is c = c ** a.
• //=: Floor division assignment, c //= a is c = c // a.
• <<=: Left shift assignment, a <<= 2 is a = a << 2.
• >>=: Right shift assignment.
• &=: Bitwise AND assignment, a &= b is a = a & b.
• |=: Bitwise OR assignment.
• ^=: Bitwise XOR assignment.

Bitwise Operators

• &: Bitwise AND (right-associative).
• |: Bitwise OR.
• ^: Bitwise XOR.
• ~: Bitwise NOT (right-associative).
• <<: Left shift.
• >>: Right shift.

Logical Operators

• and: Boolean AND.
  • x and y: Returns False if x is False; otherwise, returns y’s evaluated value.
• or: Boolean OR.
  • x or y: Returns x if non-zero; otherwise, returns y’s evaluated value.
• not: Boolean NOT.
  • not x: Returns False if x is True, and vice versa.
  • ==Right-associative==.

Membership Operators

• in: x in Y (x is an object/variable, Y is a string/dict/tuple). Returns True if x is found in Y.
• not in: x not in Y. Returns True if x is not found.

Identity Operators

• is: Checks if two identifiers reference the same object (i.e., identical in essence).
  • x is y: Returns True if id(x) == id(y).
• is not: Returns True if id(x) != id(y).

⭐ Operator Precedence

1. (): Parentheses.
2. []: Indexing.
3. x.attribute: Attribute access.
4. **: Exponentiation.
5. ~: Bitwise NOT.
6. +@, -@: Unary plus/minus (sign).
   • +@, -@ are right-associative unary operators.
7. *, /, %, //: Multiplication, division, modulo, floor division.
8. +, -: Binary addition/subtraction.
9. <<, >>: Bitwise shifts.
10. &: Bitwise AND.
11. ^: Bitwise XOR.
12. |: Bitwise OR.
13. <, <=, >, >=, ==, !=: Comparison.
14. =, +=, -=, etc.: Assignment.
15. is, is not: Identity.
16. in, not in: Membership.
17. not: Logical NOT.
18. and: Logical AND.
19. or: Logical OR.
20. ,: Comma operator.